未来能源研究所-欧盟碳边界调整机制、《清洁竞争法》和《外国污染费法》的比较（英）-2023.12_市.docx

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AdjustmentAbouttheAuthorsMilanElkerboutisafellowatRFFworkingoninternationalclimatepolicyandonEuropeanclimatepoliciestodecarbonizeenergy-intensiveindustriesinparticular.HehasworkedextensivelyontheEuropeanUnion'semissionstradingsystem(EUETS),itsvariousreforms,anditsroleindecarbonizingindustry.Elkerbouthasledpolicyresearchongreensteelcarboncaptureandcarbonremovals,carbonleakage,climateclubs,aswellastheEU'sresponsetotheCOVID-19pandemic,energycrisis,andUSInflationReductionAct.Hehasalsowrittenonindustrialandinnovationpolicy,thetrade-climatepolicynexus,andsupranationalgovernance,andhasworkedwithpolicymakers,industry,civilsociety,andacademia.ElkerbouthasabackgroundinEuropeanpoliticaleconomy.Between2014and2023,hewasworkingforCEPS,apolicythinktankinBrussels,asaresearchfellowandheadofitsclimateprogram.Fromspring2019,hespentayearasavisitingfellowatIVLStockholmaspartoftheMistraCarbonExitresearchprogram.RaymondKoppisaseniorfellowatResourcesfortheFuture(RFF).HeholdsPhDandMAdegreesineconomicsandanundergraduatedegreeinfinance.HehasbeenamemberoftheRFFresearchstaffsince1977andhasheldavarietyofmanagementpositionswithintheinstitution.Kopp'sinterestinenvironmentalpolicybeganinthelate1970s,whenhedevelopedtechniquestomeasuretheeffectofpollutioncontrolregulationsontheeconomicefficiencyofsteamelectricpowergeneration.HethenledthefirstexaminationofthecostofmajorU.S.environmentalregulationsinafull,generalequilibrium,dynamiccontextbyusinganapproachthatisnowwidelyacceptedasstate-of-the-artincost-benefitanalysis.DuringhiscareerKopphasspecializedintheanalysisofenvironmentalandnaturalresourceissueswithafocusonfederalregulatoryactivity.Heisanexpertintechniquesofassigningvaluetoenvironmentalandnaturalresourcesthatdonothavemarketprices,whichisfundamentaltocost-benefitanalysisandtheassessmentofdamagestonaturalresources.Kopp'scurrentresearchinterestsfocusonthedesignofdomesticandinternationalpolicestocombatclimatechange.KevinRennertisafellowatRFF,wherehefirstjoinedasavisitingfellowin2017.PriortohisarrivalatRFF,RennertservedasdeputyassociateadministratorfortheOfficeofPolicyattheUSEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.LeadinguptohisappointmentintheOfficeofPolicy,heworkedassenioradvisoronEnergyfortheSenateFinanceCommittee.Inthatrole,Rennertadvisedthecommittee'sChairman,SenatorRonWyden(D-OR)zonawiderangeoftopicsrelatedtocleanenergy,efficiency,andpoliciestoreducegreenhousegasemissions.From2008to2014,heworkedonenergyandclimatelegislationasseniorprofessionalStafffortheSenateEnergyCommittee.Inthatcapacity,RennertledthedevelopmentoftheCleanEnergyStandardActof2012(S.2146),apresidentialprioritythatwouldusemarketmechanismstodoubletheamountofelectricitygeneratedintheUSfromloworzerocarbonsourcesby2035.In2010and2011,RennertalsotaughtgraduatecoursesinenergypolicyasadjunctfacultyintheDepartmentofStrategicManagementandPublicPolicyatGeorgeWashingtonUniversity.AboutRFFResourcesfortheFuture(RFF)isanindependent,nonprofitresearchinstitutioninWashington,DC.Itsmissionistoimproveenvironmental,energy,andnaturalresourcedecisionsthroughimpartialeconomicresearchandpolicyengagement.RFFiscommittedtobeingthemostwidelytrustedsourceofresearchinsightsandpolicysolutionsleadingtoahealthyenvironmentandathrivingeconomy.TheviewsexpressedherearethoseoftheindividualauthorsandmaydifferfromthoseofotherRFFexperts,itsofficers,oritsdirectors.SharingOurWorkOurworkisavailableforsharingandadaptationunderanAttribution-NoncommerciaI-NoDerivatives4.0International(CCBY-NC-ND4.0)license.Youcancopyandredistributeourmaterialinanymediumorformat;youmustgiveappropriatecredit,providealinktothelicense,andindicateifchangesweremade,andyoumaynotapplyadditionalrestrictions.Youmaydosoinanyreasonablemanner,butnotinanywaythatsuggeststhelicensorendorsesyouoryouruse.Youmaynotusethematerialforcommercialpurposes.Ifyouremix,transform,orbuilduponthematerial,youmaynotdistributethemodifiedmaterial.Formoreinformation,visitAbstractInatworecentpublications,CarbonBorderAdjustments:DesignElements,Options,andPolicyDecisionsandForeignPollutionFeeActDesignElements,Options,andPolicyDecisions,weprovidedanoverviewandcomparisonofcurrentborderadjustmentmechanisms(BAMs).InthefirstpublicationwefocusedontheEuropeanUnion'sCarbonBorderAdjustmentMechanism(EUCBAM);theFair,Affordable,Innovative,andResilientTransitionandCompetitionAct(FAIRAct),sponsoredbySenatorChrisCoons(D-DE);andtheCleanCompetitionAct(CCA)zbySenatorSheldonWhitehouse(D-RI).InthesecondpublicationwereviewedanewpieceofproposedUSSenatelegislation,theForeignPollutionFeeAct(FPFA)zintroducedbySenatorBillCassidy(R-LA)zSenatorLindseyGraham(R-SC)zandSenatorRogerWicker(R-MS).InthisreportweprovidemoredetailontheEUCBAMandcompareittotheFPFAandtheCCA,whichwasreintroducedonDecember6,2023.A great deal of the FPFA description used in this report is reproduced from ourpublication Foreign Pollution Fee Act: Design Elements, Options, and Policy Decisions.ThisreportusesthedesignelementsintroducedinthepreviouspublicationstodescribethepoliciesreflectedineachBAM. We have made every effort to be concise with respect to our descriptions of the design elements, but that has required US to abstract from a great deal of detail in each BAM. We hope this report will provide a roadmap that informs understanding of these mechanisms, but it should not be interpreted as a complete and comprehensive description and review.Contents1. Goals111EUCBAM11.ZCCA113.FPFA22. CoveredProducts221 EUCBAM222 CCA223 FPFA33. Fees331 EUCBAM332 CCA433 .FPFA54. DefinitionofGHGIntensity71 .1EUCBAM742 CCA843 .FPFA85. Baselines951 EUCBAM952 CCA1053 .FPFA106. InformationResourcesandMethods1161EUCBAM11GZCCA11G3.FPFA127. Clubs,Alliances,andExemptions121 .1EUCBAM1272 CCA1373 .FPFA138. Takeaways141. GoalsEachofthethreeBAMsdiscussedinthisreportsharetwocommongoals.Thefirstgoalistoprotectthecompetitivenessofdomesticindustriesengagedininternationaltradewhiletheytakeactionstoreducetheiremissions.Theenvironmentaljustificationforprotectingdomesticcompetitivenessistheriskofcarbonleakage,wheredomesticclimatepoliciesmightinduceashiftinemissionstootherregions,thusundercuttingtheeffectivenessofthepolicy.Whileactionstomitigatetheriskofcarbonleakagecanalsosupportcompetitiveness,andviceversa,theydonotnecessarilydosoequallyinallcases.Thesecondgoalistoincentivizetradingpartnerswithlessambitiousclimategoalstoincreasetheirambitionandtherebyretainaccesstothemarketsofhigh-ambitioncountries.EachBAMhasoneormoreadditionalcomplementarygoals.Forexample,acomplementarygoalcanbepairingaBAMwithanewdecarbonizationregulatoryprogram.1.LEUCBAMTheEUCBAMisdesignedtoworkhandinglovewiththeEUEmissionsTradingSystem(ETS),acarbonpricingworkhorsepolicyforthedecarbonizationofEUindustryandoftheEuropeanUnioningeneral.Inaddition,theEUCBAMincentivizesothertradingnationstoadoptcarbonpricingasafoundationaldecarbonizationpolicytool.12CCATheCCAisalsoaBAMdesignedtoworkseamlesslywithadomesticregulatoryprogramintendedtoreducegreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsfromtheindustrialsector.TheCCAintroducesaperformancestandardtoachievethereductionsdesiredwithintheindustrialsector. It can be argued that a performance standard is preferable to a carbon tax in an internationally competitive industrial setting due to the fact that it does not cause industrial sector output prices to increase as much as they would under a carbon price that achieves the same level of emission reduction.TheperformancestandardwithintheCAAisdefinedastonsofGHGspertonofproduct.ProducerswithaGHGintensityabovethebenchmarkpayafeewhileproducersbelowthebenchmarkpaynofee.ToensurearapiddeclineinGHGintensityovertime,thebenchmarkdeclinesyearoveryearandthefeeincreasesyearoveryear.Revenuesfromfeesareusedtofurtherincentivizeinvestmentsinlow-carbontechnologiesandotheractivitiesdesignedtoreduceindustrialemissions.13.FPFAAkeydistinctionoftheFPFAfromtheothertwoapproachesisthattheFPFAdoesnotincludearegulatoryprogramtoreduceindustrialemissions.ThisisinlinewiththeFPFA,sobjectivetoreducetheimportationofembodiedGHGswithinUStradeflowsratherthanfocusonfurtherreductionsinemissionsfromdomesticsources.2. CoveredProductsZLEUCBAMInthedesignofaBAMzoneexpectstoseethelistofcoveredproductsdominatedbyprimarycommoditieswithrelativelyhighGHGintensities(i.e.,tonsofembodiedGHGspertonofproduct).TheEUCBAMincludessixcategoriesofcoveredproductsincludingcement,electricity,fertilizers,ironandsteel,aluminum,hydrogen,andchemicals.Withineachcategory,exceptforelectricityandhydrogen,therearemultipleindividualproductssubjecttotheEUCBAM.Forexample,inthecaseofcement,thecoveredproductsincludeotherkaolinicdays,clinkers,whitePortlandcement,otherPortlandcement,aluminouscement,andotherhydrauliccements.Inthecaseoffertilizers,therearefiveindividualcoveredgoodsspecified;forironandsteeltherearefourteenandfourteenforaluminumaswell.ThelistofcoveredgoodsisbasedonCombinedNomenclature(CN)codes,whichistheEuropeanUnion'scustomsandtradestatisticsclassificationsystembasedontheglobalHarmonizedSystem(HS)nomenclature.CNcodescanrunuptoeightdigits,althoughsomeEUCBAMgoodscategoriesarebasedontwofour-digitcodes,withspecificexemptions.Inthecaseofironandsteel,forexample,thismeansthatthelistofcoveredgoodsattheeight-digitlevelrunsatover100goods.22CCATheCCAleviesfeesoncoveredprimarygoodsandproductswellas"/finishedgoods."Coveredproductsaredefinedbyfirstdefiningacoverednationalindustrywithasix-digitNAICScode.Thereare20definednationalindustries. The CCA covered national industries include petroleum extraction, natural gas extraction, surface coal mining, underground coal mining, pulp mills, paper millsz paperboard mills, petroleum refineries, asphalt paving mixture and block manufacturing, asphalt shingle and coating materials manufacturing, all other petroleum and coal products manufacturing, petrochemical manufacturing, industrial gas manufacturing, ethyl alcohol manufacturing, other basic organic chemical manufacturing, nitrogenous fertilizer manufacturing, glass, cement, lime and gypsum product manufacturing, iron and steel, and aluminum.LiketheEUCBAM,eachcoverednationalindustryproducesamultitudeofindividualproducts.TheCCAdefinesacoveredprimaryproductas“anygoodwhichisproducedaspartofatradeorbusinessoperatingwithinacoverednationalindustryandincludesanygoodclassifiableunderthesame6-digitsubheadingoftheHarmonizedTariffSchedule(HTS)oftheUnitedStates/7Thelistofcoveredprimaryproductsexceedsseveralhundred.Finishedgoodsareproductsthatincludemorethan500poundsofanycombinationofcoveredprimaryproductintheirmanufacture,worwereproducedfrominputsofanycombinationofcoveredprimarygoods,thevalueofwhichcomprisemorethan90percentofthetotalvalueofthematerialinputsinvolvedintheproductionofsuchgoodszAstimepassestheweightandvaluetriggersdecrease.Finishedgoodsarechargedafeebasedonthequantityofcoveredprimaryproductscontainedwithinthefinishedgoodmeasuredbyweight.IncomparisontotheEUCBAM,theCCAincludesmanymorecoveredprimaryproducts.UnliketheEUCBAM,theCCAimposesfeesonfinishedgoodsinadditiontoprimaryproducts.Thelistofsuchfinishedgoodscanbeextraordinarilylarge.23.FPFATheFPFAleviesfeesoncoveredprimarygoodsandproductsaswellastwocategoriesof"finishedgoods,z(manufacturedproducts).Thecategoriesofcoveredproductsarealuminum,biofuels,cement,crudeOiLglass,hydrogen,methanolammonia,ironandsteel,lithium-ionbatteries,severalclassesofcriticalminerals,naturalgas,petrochemicals,plastics,pulpandpaperproducts,refinedpetroleumproducts,solarcellsandpanels,andwindturbines.TheFPFAthendefinesthecoveredproductsthataresubjecttotheimposedfeeswithineachlargecategoryusingthesix-digitHTScode.Dependinguponthecategory,asubstantialnumberofproductswillbesubjecttofees.TheFPFAhasauniquefeatureamongthethreeBAMsthatallowsdomesticproducerstopetitiontheUSSecretaryofEnergytoaddtothelistofcoveredproductsaproductproducedbythatindustry.TheabilitytopetitiontheSecretarytoaddcoveredproductsextendstotradeorganizationsconsistingoftheproducersofsuchproducts,laborunionsassociatedwiththeproductionoftheproduct,aswellasindividualsemployedintheproductionofsuchproducts.3,Fees31 EUCBAMTheEuropeanUnionarguestheEUCBAMisanextensionoftheETS,underwhichindustrialfacilitiesoperatingwithintheEuropeanUnionmustsurrenderallowancesforeachtonofGHGsemittedfromtheirproductionfacilities.EUCBAMfeesresultfromtheobligationforimporters(termeddeclarants)ofcoveredproductstobuyandsurrender“CBAMcertificates'"(virtualETSallowances)ontheETSmarketequaltotheGHGsembodiedinthecoveredproductstheywishtoimport.SinceETSallowancemarketpricesfluctuateinresponsetodemand,thereissomeuncertaintywithrespecttothepricedeclarantsmustpaytoimportcoveredproducts.IfthecountryoforiginofacoveredproducthasinplaceacarbonpricethatmustbepaidbytheproducerofthecoveredproductandthecarbonpriceisatleastequaltothepriceofanEUETSallowance,thepurchasepriceoftheETSallowanceswillberebatedinfulltotheimporter.Ifthecountry-of-origincarbonpriceisafractionoftheETSallowanceprice,thatfractionoftheallowancepurchasepricewillberebated.TheEUCBAMlargelyaimstoequalizetreatmentofdomesticproducersandimporters,buttherearetwopracticaldifferencesworthyofmention.DomesticproducersmustsurrenderallowancesequaltoGHGsemittedfromtheirfacilities,whiledeclarantsmustsurrenderallowancesequaltothegreenhousegasemissionsembodiedinindividualcoveredproductsonefacility-basedandtheotherproduct-based.Second,EUindustrialsectorsreceivefreeallowancestocoveraportionoftheiremissions.But,totheextentthatEUproducersreceivefreeETSallowances,thenumberofEUCBAMcertificatestobesurrenderedwillbecommensuratelyreducedaswell.Beginningin2026,thesefreeallowanceswillbereducedoveraneight-yearperiod.Inaddition,attheendofeveryquarter,thedeclarantneedstoholdavolumeofEUCBAMcertificatesonitsaccount,equaltoatleast80percentoftheembeddedemissionsofthegoodsithasimportedsincethestartofthecalendaryear.TheeffectivecarbonpricepaidbyEUCBAMimporterscanthereforevarydependingonthetimingofthepurchases,muchlikedomesticEUproducersarealsofreetotimetheirallowancepurchases(butnotsurrendering)accordingtopreference.ThepriceofEUCBAMcertificatesislinkedtotheEUETSprice.Everycalendarweek,theEuropeanCommissioncalculatesandpublishestheaverageclosingpriceofEUETSallowancesfortheprecedingweek.TheEUCBAMfeewillthereforebroadlytracktheEUETSprice,withaminortimelag.Inprinciple,thefeeschargedforacquiringEUCBAMcertificateswillbeadjustedforanycarbonpricesalreadypaidinthecountrywherethegoodsoriginated.Inpractice,strictlyspeaking,theeffectivecarbonpricepaidwillleadtoareductioninthenumberofcertificatesthathavetobesurrendered,ratherthanalowerfeeperEUCBAMcertificate.32 CCATheCCAwouldestablishbothadomesticregulatoryprogramtoreducedomesticindustrialemissionsandabordermechanismthatwouldapplyfeestoimportedcoveredproductsbasedontheirembodiedGHGs.LiketheEUCBAM,theCCAworkstotreatimportersofcoveredproductsinthesamemannerthatittreatsdomesticproducersofthosesameproducts.TheheartoftheCCAisaperformancestandardbasedonab